ASSIGMENT 5: COMPUTER ETHIC & LEGAL ISSUES

ASSIGMENT 5: COMPUTER ETHIC & LEGAL ISSUES

UNETHICAL COMPUTER CODE OF CONDUCTS

With the advancement of ICT, it is easy for anyone to retrieve your information from the Internet. You may not realize that when you fill a form on the Internet, your information may be exposed and stolen. Examples of unethical computer code of conducts include:

• modifying certain information on the Internet, affecting the accuracy of the information

• selling information to other parties without the owner’s permission

• using information without authorization

• involvement in stealing software

• invasion of privacy

Intellectual property refers to any product of human intellect that is unique and has value in the market place. This covers ideas, inventions, unique name, computer program codes and many more.

Examples of ethical computer code of conducts include:

• sending warning about viruses to other computer users

• asking permission before sending any business advertisements to others

• using information with authorization

DEFINITION OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual Property refers to works created by inventors, authors and artists. These works are unique and have value in the market place. In our daily lives, we are surrounded by things that are protected by IP. Your school bags, your shoes and even your socks are protected by Intellectual Property rights. Nike, Bata or Adidas, for example, are all protected by a group of legal rights.

PATENTS FOR INVENTION
-A patent (pronounced /ˈpætənt/ or /ˈpeɪtənt/) is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state (national government) to an inventor or their assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for a public disclosure of an invention.

The procedure for granting patents, the requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims defining the invention which must be new, inventive, and useful or industrially applicable. In many countries, certain subject areas are excluded from patents, such as business methods and mental acts. The exclusive right granted to a patentee in most countries is the right to prevent others from making, using, selling, or distributing the patented invention without permission.[1]

Under the World Trade Organization's (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, patents should be available in WTO member states for any inventions, in all fields of technology,[2] and the term of protection available should be the minimum twenty years.[3] Different types of patents may have varying patent terms (i.e., durations).-The term patent usually refers to a right granted to anyone who invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof. The additional qualification utility patent is used in the United States to distinguish it from other types of patents (e.g. design patents) but should not be confused with utility models granted by other countries. Examples of particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents and software patents.

Some other types of intellectual property rights are referred to as patents in some jurisdictions: industrial design rights are called design patents in some jurisdictions (they protect the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian), plant breeders' rights are sometimes called plant patents, and utility models or Gebrauchsmuster are sometimes called petty patents or innovation patents. This article relates primarily to the patent for an invention, although so-called petty patents and utility models may also be granted for inventions.

Certain grants made by the monarch in pursuance of the royal prerogative were sometimes called letters patent, which was a government notice to the public of a grant of an exclusive right to ownership and possession. These were often grants of a patent-like monopoly and predate the modern origins of the patent system. For other uses of the term patent see notably land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patent, a precursor of modern copyright. These meanings reflect the original meaning of letters patent that had a broader scope than current usage.

TRADEMARKS FOR BRAND IDENTITY
-A brand is a name used to identify and distinguish a specific product, service, or business.[1][page needed] A legally protected brand name is called a proprietary name.A product identity, or brand image are typically the attributes one associates with a brand, how the brand owner wants the consumer to perceive the brand - and by extension the branded company, organization, product or service. The brand owner will seek to bridge the gap between the brand image and the brand identity. Effective brand names build a connection between the brand personality as it is perceived by the target audience and the actual product/service. The brand name should be conceptually on target with the product/service (what the company stands for). Furthermore, the brand name should be on target with the brand demographic.[7] Typically, sustainable brand names are easy to remember, transcend trends and have positive connotations. Brand identity is fundamental to consumer recognition and symbolizes the brand's differentiation from competitors.

Brand identity is what the owner wants to communicate to its potential consumers. However, over time, a products brand identity may acquire (evolve), gaining new attributes from consumer perspective but not necessarily from the marketing communications an owner percolates to targeted consumers. Therefore, brand associations become handy to check the consumer's perception of the brand.[8]

Brand identity needs to focus on authentic qualities - real characteristics of the value and brand promise being provided and sustained by organisational and/or production characteristics[9][10].
Visual Brand Identity
The visual brand identity manual for Mobil Oil (developed by Chermayeff & Geismar), one of the first visual identities to integrate logotype, icon, alphabet, color palette, and station architecture to create a comprehensive consumer brand experience.

The recognition and perception of a brand is highly influenced by its visual presentation. A brand’s visual identity is the overall look of its communications. Effective visual brand identity is achieved by the consistent use of particular visual elements to create distinction, such as specific fonts, colors, and graphic elements. At the core of every brand identity is a brand mark, or logo. In the United States, brand identity and logo design naturally grew out of the Modernist movement in the 1950’s and greatly drew on the principals of that movement – simplicity (Mies van der Rohe’s principle of "Less is more") and geometric abstraction. These principles can be observed in the work of the pioneers of the practice of visual brand identity design, such as Paul Rand, Chermayeff & Geismar and Saul Bass.
[edit] Brand parity
Brand parity is the perception of the customers that all brands are equivalent.[11]

DESIGN FOR PRODUCTS APPEARANCE
-The task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects: exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of automotive design; this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the isolated outer shape of automobile parts, but concentrates on the combination of form and function, starting from the vehicle package.

The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well. In particular, vehicular electronic components and parts will give more challenges to automotive designers who are required to update on the latest information and knowledge associated with emerging vehicular gadgetry, particularly dashtop mobile devices, like GPS navigation, satellite radio, HD radio, mobile TV, MP3 players, video playback and smartphone interfaces. Though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, but some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models.

Exterior design (styling)

The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, and surfaces of the vehicle. Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively more detailed drawings are executed and approved. Clay (industrial plasticine) and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are then used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design (body in white). With 3 and 5 axis CNC Milling Machines, the clay model is first designed in a computer program and then "carved" using the machine and large amounts of clay. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on powerwalls the clay model is still the most important tool to evaluate the design of a car and therefore used throughout the industry.
[edit] Interior design (styling)

The stylist responsible for the design of the vehicle interior develops the proportions, shape, placement, and surfaces for the instrument panel, seats, door trim panels, headliner, pillar trims, etc. Here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design (sketch, digital model and clay model).
[edit] Color and trim design

The color and trim (or color and materials) designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, and so on. Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers.

Designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as: industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, and architecture. Specific research is done into global trends to design for projects two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from this research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts which are then further refined and tested on the vehicle models.
[edit] Graphic design

The design team also develop graphics for items such as: badges, decals, dials, switches, kick or tread strips, liveries.

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer technology for the design of objects, real or virtual. CAD often involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD often must convey also symbolic information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions.

CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional ("2D") space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional ("3D") objects.[1]

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry.[2]

The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is often called computer-aided geometric design (CAGD).

COPY RIGHT FOR MATERIAL
-Copyright is the set of exclusive righ

ts granted to the author or creator of an original work, including the right to copy, distribute and adapt the work. Copyright lasts for a certain time period after which the work is said to enter the public domain. Copyright applies to a wide range of works that are substantive and fixed in a medium. Some jurisdictions also recognize "moral rights" of the creator of a work, such as the right to be credited for the work. Copyright is described under the umbrella term intellectual property along with patents and trademarks.

The Statute of Anne 1709, long title "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned", is now seen as the origin of copyright law.[1]

Copyright has been internationally standardized, lasting between fifty and one hundred years from the author's death, or a shorter period for anonymous or corporate authorship. Some jurisdictions have required formalities to establish copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a civil matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions.
Copyright initially only granted the exclusive right to copy a work, allowing anybody to use the work to, for example, make a translation, adaptation or public performance. The exclusive rights granted by copyright law to copyright owners have been gradually expanded over time and now uses of the work such as dramatization, translations, and derivative works such as adaptations and transformations, fall within the scope of copyright.
The type of works which are subject to copyright has been expanded over time. Initially only covering books, copyright law was revised in the 19th century to include maps, charts, engravings, prints, musical compositions, dramatic works, photographs, paintings, drawings and sculptures. In the 20th Century copyright was expanded to cover motion pictures, computer programs, sound recordings, dance and architectural works.[6]

However, copyright does not protect ideas, only their expression. In the Anglo-American law tradition the idea-expression dichotomy is a legal concept which explains the appropriate function of copyright laws, which are generally designed to protect the fixed expression or manifestation of an idea rather than the fundamental idea itself.[7] For example, the copyright to a Mickey Mouse cartoon restricts others from making copies of the cartoon or creating derivative works based on Disney's particular anthropomorphic mouse, but it does not prohibit the creation of other works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they're not copies or adaptations of Disney's mouse.

QUIZ..

ACTIVITY 2

Fill in the box with the right answer provided below.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS
*People are interested to communicate through online chatting rather than having real time
conversations.

SPEED
*Information travels faster like sending emails
to friends or business partners

HEALTH PROBLEMS
*Using computers frequently and for long hours is harmful to one’s health.

SHARING
*Exchanging of information through the internet – discussion groups, mailing list and forums.

PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT
*Information is stored systematically and can be retrieved at any time.

GLOBALISATION
*Borderless communication.

ASSIGMENT 4: THE IMPACT OF ICT ON THE SOCIETY

ASSIGMENT 4: THE IMPACT OF ICT ON THE SOCIETY

RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION

Voice mail’s introduction enabled people to leave lengthy, secure and detailed messages in natural voice, working hand-in-hand with corporate phone systems. The adoption of voicemail in corporations improved the flow of communications and saved huge amounts of money. GE, one of the pioneer adopters of voicemail in all of its offices around the world, claimed that voicemail saved, on average, over US$1,100 per year per employee.
Voicemail has two main modes of operation: telephone answering and voice messaging. Telephone answering mode answers outside calls and takes a message from any outside caller (either because the extension was busy or rang no-answer). Voice messaging enables any subscriber (someone with a mailbox number) to send messages directly to any or many subscribers’ mailboxes without first calling them. Both of these modes are described below.
[edit]Telephone answering mode
One of the advantages of a PBX is its ability to forward calls. If a person is using his phone or does not answer it, calls to his extension are forwarded automatically by the PBX to another extension, presumably someone (like a secretary) who can answer the call and take a message. With a voicemail system installed, the PBX is programmed to forward busy or unanswered extensions to a machine — the voicemail system.
Suppose an outside caller, Willma, calls someone in a company, Fred. If Fred’s phone rings "no answer" or "busy", the PBX will forward the call to the voicemail system. Somehow the PBX needs to tell the voicemail system that Fred’s phone is the one that the call is being forwarded to so that the voicemail system can answer with Fred’s personal greeting. Without this information, the voicemail system would have no idea whose phone it was answering. Once a message is left, the voicemail system illuminates the message waiting light on Fred’s phone. It does this by sending a signal to the PBX to tell it which light to light. When Fred returns to his desk and calls the voicemail system (or calls in remotely) he is presented only with the messages in his personal mailbox even though thousands of messages belonging to other people are stored on the same system. Once the messages are played, the voicemail system signals the PBX to turn off the message waiting light on Fred’s phone.
Early voicemail systems (notably those made by IBM and VMX) could not answer outside calls — that is, they could not automatically answer a call originally destined to an extension on the PBX which rang busy or was not answered. As subsequent voicemail systems emerged (notably ROLM and Octel which later merged with Boston Technology), the systems could answer outside calls. However, most PBX’s did not provide signaling to tell the voicemail system which extension it was forwarding, nor did they support telephones with message waiting lights. This signaling would come later, but until it did it created a major challenge for voicemail systems for many years.
[edit]Voice messaging
This mode is to phones what email is to computers. Messages are sent to other users by calling the voicemail system rather than the user’s phone. For example, suppose two employees, Fred and Mary, are working on a project. Fred has some information that Mary should have, but does not want to phone her and talk to her — he just wants to give her the information. Rather than phone her, Fred calls the voicemail system, logs on with his number and password, and records a message to Mary in his own voice. He tells the voicemail system to send it to Mary by keying in her mailbox number (same as her extension) or spelling her name using Touch-tone keys. The message is immediately put in Mary’s voice mailbox without her phone ever ringing. The message waiting light on her phone immediately comes on telling her there is a message. Fred can send this message just to Mary, to Mary and any number of additional employees, or to group lists which contain any number of pre-programmed names and numbers. The same message can be sent to thousands of people. Additional features are available, like marking a message urgent, private or asking for notification when the message has been picked up.
[edit]Interoperability between systems
Voice messaging does not always have to be sent between individuals on the same voicemail system. Messages can be transferred using AMIS (Audio Messaging Interchange Specification) or VOIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol) technologies; both allow messages on one computer system to be forwarded to the target system. Like email, this method of delivering voice messages can be subject to abuse such as spam or vishing. There are Federal and State laws and regulations designed curb these abuses, such as the United States National Do Not Call Registry.


EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND HEALTHY RELATIONSHIPS

Communication involves almost every aspect of our interactions with others; for this reason, communication and relationships are inseparably connected. You can't have a relationship with someone without communicating with them.

Communication involves how we express our thoughts, ideas, and feelings to others, including what we say and how we say it. But when we communicate with others, we also communicate attitudes, values, priorities, and beliefs. No matter what we actually say to other people in words, we also send messages about what we think of them, what we think of ourselves, and whether or not we're being sincere and genuine in what we say. Our non-verbal communication -- those things we don't say with words, but with our gestures, our facial expressions, and our attitude -- speak volumes.

Two Way Traffic

What we say and do, and how we say and do it, directly shapes how people experience us. In fact, many times, the opinions people form about us are based on the way we communicate. It also directly influences how they communicate in return. In other words, communication is a two way street.

Communication in the Real World

Communication can be clear or vague, open or guarded, honest or dishonest -- it can even be spoken or non-spoken -- but there is no such thing as "non" communication. In fact, virtually everything we do in the company of others communicates something. Our body language, facial expressions, tone of voice, and level of interest (or disinterest) communicate something to the perceptive observer.

Because our ideas and interests are transmitted to other people through the way we communicate, we're more apt to get our needs met if we are effective communicators. The problem is that often we think we're communicating one thing but are actually communicating something quite different, or we're communicating so poorly that no -- one quite understands what is we're trying to say.

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Ineffective communication is characterized by one or more the following elements:


Indirect (doesn't get to the point, never clearly states purpose or intention)
Passive (timid and reserved)
Antagonistic (angry, aggressive, or hostile tone)
Cryptic (underlying message or purpose is obscured and requires interpretation)
Hidden (true agenda is never stated directly)
Non-verbal (meaning is communicated through body language and behaviors, not words)
One way (more talk than listening)
Unresponsive (little interest in the perspective or needs of the other person)
Off base (responses and needs of the other person are misunderstood and misinterpreted)
Dishonest (dishonest statements are substituted for true feelings, thoughts, and needs)
Effective Communication

On the other hand, effective communication is:


Direct (to-the-point, leaving no doubt as to meaning or purpose)
Assertive (not afraid to state what is wanted or why)
Congenial (affable and friendly)
Clear (underlying issues are clear)
Open (no intentionally hidden messages or meaning)
Verbal (words are used to clearly express ideas)
Two way (equal amounts of talking and listening)
Responsive (attention paid to the needs and perspective of the other person)
On Track (correctly interprets responses and need of the other person)
Honest (true feelings, thoughts, and needs are stated)
Communication in Important Relationships

Effective communication is essential in day-to-day life, and especially so in important relationships.
Put a premium on openness. Find ways to be honest, express your feelings, and share ideas.
Share your problems. Sharing the good times and the bad times is important in relationships, and serves to deepen and strengthen relationships and communication within them.
Share your daily life. Share those things in your life that are mildly interesting, funny, sad, or affect you in some way. Find a way to connect with others, sharing your life with them and allowing them to share their lives with you.
Avoid verbally bruising other people. Refrain from insults, put-downs, and expressions of disgust, and avoid generalizations which are not only stereotypes, but often hurt.
Boost self-esteem, don't crush it. When it comes to relationship building, naming someone's deficiencies or failures is rarely as effective as praise. Focus on each other's positive traits. Find something good to say, catch each other doing something right, and help build self confidence and self esteem.
Avoid controlling. Whenever one person seeks to always be right, always be the agenda-setter, and always be the virtuous one, he or she may feel like a winner - but it's the relationship that loses.
Effective Communication and Healthy Relationships

Where there are many factors involved in healthy relationships, the ability to communicate effectively is one important route to mutual satisfaction within any relationship. And once again, there are two ways to communicate with others: effectively and ineffectively.

"I like hearing myself talk. It is one of my greatest pleasures. I often have long conversations with myself, and I am so clever that sometimes I don't understand a single word of what I am saying." - Oscar Wilde

PAPERLESS COMMUNICATION
Cut out the paper
Use e-mail communication instead of paper memos/photocopying notes
Use e-mail for both internal and external communications
Scan documents that need circulating instead of making paper copies
Put brochures and promotional material on your company website instead of printing out large amounts of paper copies
Review and edit draft documents on screen instead of on paper
Bookmark interesting web pages instead of printing them out for reference
Encourage the use of online application forms
Utilise organiser software instead of ordering paper diaries and calendars

Steps to a paperless office
Many experts claim that modern technology has not reduced the amount of paper we use in the office, but increased it. Do you know how much paper your office uses and how much it costs every year? A simple audit can help you find out:

Carry out a paper audit to find out how much paper you use in a week
Look out for 'hidden' usage, such as paper printed or copied by a third party
When you know how much you use, calculate how much you spend
Look at the paper you use - what do you use it for?
Can you do things differently to use less paper? Sometimes paper usage is just a habit or a process that we can redesign
Get ideas from staff on how to reduce paper to get their buy-in
Develop some guidelines for staff on paper reduction
Monitor paper usage periodically to assess progress

BORDELESS COMMUNICATION

My Skype friend Hudson Barton blogs again! Hurrah! See his interesting graph on Skype concurrent users online by continent! Based on his personal calculation.
His blog is called Borderless Communication.
In fact a very appropriate title for a Skype blog:
Skype originated in Europe but …
My first contact was my Brazilian brother in law Cassio;
From the beginning on Skype was multilingual, there are 29 different languages for the Skype client and you can even edit your language file to your local slang, or create a new one!
Skype users are everywhere, just look at the different nationalities that visit my blog;
There is SkypeIn in 19 different countries on 4 different continents;
Skype belongs now to eBay (USA), has it official registered office in Luxemburg (for tax reasons), its marketing and commercial people mainly in the UK, but also elsewhere, and – last but not least – the technical staff mainly in Estonia;
Even on the Skype Forums there are now subforums in 5 different languages;
I keep in contact through Skype with people i know (people i met personally at least once!) living in Belgium (of course), and 20 other countries on all continents (i was myself surprised by this number)!
I keep in contact with friends and colleagues travelling abroad for business or holidays;
I used myself Skype when travelling abroad in at least 6 countries to communicate with family or professional contacts;
And, last but not least, i keep in contact with a lot of Skype Crazy Fanaticals (Bloggers, Forum (Super) Users, Beta Testers, and Staff) like Hudson Barton!

The use of computers has long been blamed for a variety of problems. In this document we will identify and look at several of these.

One of the major complaints of people who work with computers is “I have RSI”. This is a condition known as Repetitive Strain Injury and is caused when someone uses a tool (it does not just have to be a computer) too much. So, for example, an Educational Administrator may use a computer to enroll new students. At busy times this may be the only work that this person does. The repetitive motions involved means that the muscles in the arms and hands are kept tense for a long time. This causes pain – and here are some of the pains to watch out for if you fear you have RSI:

HEALTH PROBLEM
Sore neck, back shoulders, hands or wrists
A tingling sensation, and possibly the affected area can be numb or cold
You may experience a weakening of your grip
Uncomfortable sleep. A lot of RSI sufferers think, when in bed, that they are lying on their arms and that their circulation has been cut off.
Read more in Mental Health
« How to be More GratefulMind Exercise »
It is also important to know that sometimes the area that is experiencing pain may NOT be the area that has been damaged. For example, the hand may be numb but this is often caused by a pinched nerve at the shoulder area.

One way of reducing the risk of RSI is to adopt good ergonomics. As we have previously seen ergonomics can reduce the likelihood of damage to the body in the office work space.

Reducing technostress is often key. Series of studies have shown that RSI can be connected to social factors. Workers who are stressed out are at double the risk of reporting pain. Other factors such as poor relationships with colleagues, being asked to do too much work and just being plain bored and dissatisfied are also factors in making RSI worse than it actually is. Many doctors believe that technostress is in fact the main cause of the pain symptoms that people usually associate with RSI.


Another condition that can come about because of overuse of ICT is CTS or Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. This is where an important nerve, the median nerve, is squashed in the wrist area – and this is painful! Carpal Tunnel Syndrome is more common in women than in men and it can happen to you at any age. However, research has shown that if you are around 42 years of age you are most at risk!

Treatments for this can vary – quite often your wrist will be put in to a brace so that it cannot be moved while the nerve heals. However, prevention is much better than cure and following an ergonomic system will drastically reduce the chance of CTS. As with RSI, the pain of CTS is often double if the person is suffering from technostress at the same time!

Both of these medical conditions can be described as new because they were only discovered in the last one hundred years or so. This coincides with the sharp increase in the amount of office workers and their use, first of all typewriters, and today of computers. Hardly a coincidence?

SOCIAL PROBLEMS
Social entrepreneurs tackling social problems

Social entrepreneurs are individuals with innovative solutions to society’s most pressing social problems. They are ambitious and persistent, tackling major social issues and offering new ideas for wide-scale change. Rather than leaving societal needs to the government or business sectors, social entrepreneurs find what is not working and solve the problem by changing the system, spreading the solution, and persuading entire societies to take new leaps. Here are three social entrepreneur web sites:

Ashoka: Innovators for the Public is the global association of the world’s leading social entrepreneurs — men and women with system changing solutions for the world’s most urgent social problems. Since 1981, Ashoka has elected over 1,800 leading social entrepreneurs as Ashoka Fellows, providing them with living stipends, professional support, and access to a global network of peers in more than 60 countries. Ashoka's Fellows inspire others to adopt and spread their innovations - demonstrating to all citizens that they too have the potential to be powerful changemakers.


Changemakers focuses on social innovation. It describes solutions and resources needed to help people become changemakers and presents stories that explore the fundamental principles of successful social innovation around the world. Changemakers is building an online "open source" community that competes to surface the best social solutions, and then collaborates to refine, enrich, and implement those solutions. The online Changemakers's community identifies and selects the solutions and helps refine them. Changemakers's Idea Reviewers are regular contributors of commentary and analysis that ensure lively and rich online discussion. It is an initiative of Ashoka.


Social Edge is a global online community where social entrepreneurs and other practitioners of the social benefit sector connect to network, learn, inspire and share resources. It was launched in June 2003 with the mission to:
Connect social entrepreneurs, their partners and allies to discuss cutting-edge issues shaping the field;
Foster frank dialogue, mutual respect and a sense of community among all in the sector;
Promote learning from the best, promising and disastrous practices.
The Social Edge site strikes a balance between the visionary and the practical, with its spirited discussions and online workshops and features.

QUIZ

Lesson 5: The Impact of ICT on the Society
Name: NADZIRAH AQILAH BT SHAHARUDDIN
Class: 4 BESTARI
Date: 8.2.2010

ACTIVITY 1
Choose wither true or false.

1. Using computers frequently and for long hours is not harmful.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

2. The usage of ICT technologies such as to create pornographic websites can have a negative
impact on the society.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

3. We can only find limited sources of information on the internet.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

4. The cost of using the internet is more expensive compared to other modes of communication.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

5. With the internet, the interaction among societies is unlimited.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

6. Using ICT technologies can create a paperless office environment.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

7. It takes ages for someone to receive information through the internet.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

8. ICT brings positive changes to the society’s lifestyle.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

9. Normally the “computer error” is caused by the machine itself.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

10. There is only one way of communication through ICT technology and that is via Yahoo!
Messenger.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

ASSIGMENT 3: COMPUTERIZED & NON-COMPUTERIZED

ASSIGMENT 3: COMPUTERIZED & NON-COMPUTERIZED

BANKING SYSTEM

A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits and channels those deposits into lending activities. Banks primarily provide financial services to customers while enriching investors. Government restrictions on financial activities by banks vary over time and location. Banks are important players in financial markets and offer services such as investment funds and loans. In some countries such as Germany, banks have historically owned major stakes in industrial corporations while in other countries such as the United States banks are prohibited from owning non-financial companies. In Japan, banks are usually the nexus of a cross-share holding entity known as the keiretsu. In France, bancassurance is prevalent, as most banks offer insurance services (and now real estate services) to their clients.

The level of government regulation of the banking industry varies widely, with countries such as Iceland, having relatively light regulation of the banking sector, and countries such as China having a wide variety of regulations but no systematic process that can be followed typical of a communist system.

Origin of the word

Silver drachm coin from Trapezus, 4th century BCThe name bank derives from the Italian word banco "desk/bench", used during the Renaissance by Jewish Florentine bankers, who used to make their transactions above a desk covered by a green tablecloth.[2] However, there are traces of banking activity even in ancient times.

In fact, the word traces its origins back to the Ancient Roman Empire, where moneylenders would set up their stalls in the middle of enclosed courtyards called macella on a long bench called a bancu, from which the words banco and bank are derived. As a moneychanger, the merchant at the bancu did not so much invest money as merely convert the foreign currency into the only legal tender in Rome—that of the Imperial Mint.[3]

The earliest evidence of money-changing activity is depicted on a silver drachm coin from ancient Hellenic colony Trapezus on the Black Sea, modern Trabzon, c. 350–325 BC, presented in the British Museum in London. The coin shows a banker's table (trapeza) laden with coins, a pun on the name of the city.

In fact, even today in Modern Greek the word Trapeza (Τράπεζα) means both a table and a bank.

Traditional banking activities

Large door to an old bank vault.Banks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying cheques drawn by customers on the bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, and ATM.

Banks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting term deposits, and by issuing debt securities such as banknotes and bonds. Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making installment loans, and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending.

Banks provide almost all payment services, and a bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses, individuals and governments. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are not normally considered an adequate substitute for having a bank account.

Banks borrow most funds from households and non-financial businesses, and lend most funds to households and non-financial businesses, but non-bank lenders provide a significant and in many cases adequate substitute for bank loans, and money market funds, cash management trusts and other non-bank financial institutions in many cases provide an adequate substitute to banks for lending savings to.[clarification needed]

The definition of a bank varies from country to country.

Under English common law, a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking, which is specified as:[4]

conducting current accounts for his customers
paying cheques drawn on him, and
collecting cheques for his customers.
In most English common law jurisdictions there is a Bills of Exchange Act that codifies the law in relation to negotiable instruments, including cheques, and this Act contains a statutory definition of the term banker: banker includes a body of persons, whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business of banking' (Section 2, Interpretation). Although this definition seems circular, it is actually functional, because it ensures that the legal basis for bank transactions such as cheques do not depend on how the bank is organised or regulated.

The business of banking is in many English common law countries not defined by statute but by common law, the definition above. In other English common law jurisdictions there are statutory definitions of the business of banking or banking business. When looking at these definitions it is important to keep in mind that they are defining the business of banking for the purposes of the legislation, and not necessarily in general. In particular, most of the definitions are from legislation that has the purposes of entry regulating and supervising banks rather than regulating the actual business of banking. However, in many cases the statutory definition closely mirrors the common law one. Examples of statutory definitions:

"banking business" means the business of receiving money on current or deposit account, paying and collecting cheques drawn by or paid in by customers, the making of advances to customers, and includes such other business as the Authority may prescribe for the purposes of this Act; (Banking Act (Singapore), Section 2, Interpretation).
"banking business" means the business of either or both of the following:
1.receiving from the general public money on current, deposit, savings or other similar account repayable on demand or within less than [3 months] ... or with a period of call or notice of less than that period;
2.paying or collecting cheques drawn by or paid in by customers[5]
Since the advent of EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale), direct credit, direct debit and internet banking, the cheque has lost its primacy in most banking systems as a payment instrument. This has led legal theorists to suggest that the cheque based definition should be broadened to include financial institutions that conduct current accounts for customers and enable customers to pay and be paid by third parties, even if they do not pay and collect cheques.[6]

Accounting for bank accounts

Suburban branch bankBank statements are accounting records produced by banks under the various accounting standards of the world. Under GAAP and IFRS there are two kinds of accounts: debit and credit. Credit accounts are Revenue, Equity and Liabilities. Debit Accounts are Assets and Expenses. This means you credit a credit account to increase its balance, and you debit a debit account to decrease its balance.[7]

This also means you debit your savings account every time you deposit money into it (and the account is normally in deficit), while you credit your credit card account every time you spend money from it (and the account is normally in credit).

However, if you read your bank statement, it will say the opposite—that you credit your account when you deposit money, and you debit it when you withdraw funds. If you have cash in your account, you have a positive (or credit) balance; if you are overdrawn, you have a negative (or deficit) balance.

The reason for this is that the bank, and not you, has produced the bank statement. Your savings might be your assets, but the bank's liability, so they are credit accounts (which should have a positive balance). Conversely, your loans are your liabilities but the bank's assets, so they are debit accounts (which should also have a positive balance).

Where bank transactions, balances, credits and debits are discussed below, they are done so from the viewpoint of the account holder—which is traditionally what most people are used to seeing.

Wider commercial role
The commercial role of banks is not limited to banking, and includes:

issue of banknotes (promissory notes issued by a banker and payable to bearer on demand)
processing of payments by way of telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, internet banking or other means
issuing bank drafts and bank cheques
accepting money on term deposit
lending money by way of overdraft, installment loan or otherwise
providing documentary and standby letters of credit (trade finance), guarantees, performance bonds, securities underwriting commitments and other forms of off-balance sheet exposures
safekeeping of documents and other items in safe deposit boxes
currency exchange
acting as a 'financial supermarket' for the sale, distribution or brokerage, with or without advice, of insurance, unit trusts and similar financial products
[edit] Economic functions
The economic functions of banks include:

1.issue of money, in the form of banknotes and current accounts subject to cheque or payment at the customer's order. These claims on banks can act as money because they are negotiable and/or repayable on demand, and hence valued at par. They are effectively transferable by mere delivery, in the case of banknotes, or by drawing a cheque that the payee may bank or cash.
2.netting and settlement of payments – banks act as both collection and paying agents for customers, participating in interbank clearing and settlement systems to collect, present, be presented with, and pay payment instruments. This enables banks to economise on reserves held for settlement of payments, since inward and outward payments offset each other. It also enables the offsetting of payment flows between geographical areas, reducing the cost of settlement between them.
3.credit intermediation – banks borrow and lend back-to-back on their own account as middle men.
4.credit quality improvement – banks lend money to ordinary commercial and personal borrowers (ordinary credit quality), but are high quality borrowers. The improvement comes from diversification of the bank's assets and capital which provides a buffer to absorb losses without defaulting on its obligations. However, banknotes and deposits are generally unsecured; if the bank gets into difficulty and pledges assets as security, to raise the funding it needs to continue to operate, this puts the note holders and depositors in an economically subordinated position.
5.maturity transformation – banks borrow more on demand debt and short term debt, but provide more long term loans. In other words, they borrow short and lend long. With a stronger credit quality than most other borrowers, banks can do this by aggregating issues (e.g. accepting deposits and issuing banknotes) and redemptions (e.g. withdrawals and redemptions of banknotes), maintaining reserves of cash, investing in marketable securities that can be readily converted to cash if needed, and raising replacement funding as needed from various sources (e.g. wholesale cash markets and securities markets).
[edit] Law of banking
Banking law is based on a contractual analysis of the relationship between the bank (defined above) and the customer—defined as any entity for which the bank agrees to conduct an account.

The law implies rights and obligations into this relationship as follows:

1.The bank account balance is the financial position between the bank and the customer: when the account is in credit, the bank owes the balance to the customer; when the account is overdrawn, the customer owes the balance to the bank.
2.The bank agrees to pay the customer's cheques up to the amount standing to the credit of the customer's account, plus any agreed overdraft limit.
3.The bank may not pay from the customer's account without a mandate from the customer, e.g. a cheque drawn by the customer.
4.The bank agrees to promptly collect the cheques deposited to the customer's account as the customer's agent, and to credit the proceeds to the customer's account.
5.The bank has a right to combine the customer's accounts, since each account is just an aspect of the same credit relationship.
6.The bank has a lien on cheques deposited to the customer's account, to the extent that the customer is indebted to the bank.
7.The bank must not disclose details of transactions through the customer's account—unless the customer consents, there is a public duty to disclose, the bank's interests require it, or the law demands it.
8.The bank must not close a customer's account without reasonable notice, since cheques are outstanding in the ordinary course of business for several days.
These implied contractual terms may be modified by express agreement between the customer and the bank. The statutes and regulations in force within a particular jurisdiction may also modify the above terms and/or create new rights, obligations or limitations relevant to the bank-customer relationship.

[edit] Entry regulation
Main article: Banking regulation
Currently in most jurisdictions commercial banks are regulated by government entities and require a special bank licence to operate.

Usually the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to the customer's order—although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition.

Unlike most other regulated industries, the regulator is typically also a participant in the market, i.e. a government-owned (central) bank. Central banks also typically have a monopoly on the business of issuing banknotes. However, in some countries this is not the case. In the UK, for example, the Financial Services Authority licences banks, and some commercial banks (such as the Bank of Scotland) issue their own banknotes in addition to those issued by the Bank of England, the UK government's central bank.

Some types of financial institution, such as building societies and credit unions, may be partly or wholly exempt from bank licence requirements, and therefore regulated under separate rules.

The requirements for the issue of a bank licence vary between jurisdictions but typically include:

1.Minimum capital
2.Minimum capital ratio
3.'Fit and Proper' requirements for the bank's controllers, owners, directors, and/or senior officers
4.Approval of the bank's business plan as being sufficiently prudent and plausible.
[edit] Banking channels
Banks offer many different channels to access their banking and other services:

A branch, banking centre or financial centre is a retail location where a bank or financial institution offers a wide array of face-to-face service to its customers.
ATM is a computerised telecommunications device that provides a financial institution's customers a method of financial transactions in a public space without the need for a human clerk or bank teller. Most banks now have more ATMs than branches, and ATMs are providing a wider range of services to a wider range of users. For example in Hong Kong, most ATMs enable anyone to deposit cash to any customer of the bank's account by feeding in the notes and entering the account number to be credited. Also, most ATMs enable card holders from other banks to get their account balance and withdraw cash, even if the card is issued by a foreign bank.
Mail is part of the postal system which itself is a system wherein written documents typically enclosed in envelopes, and also small packages containing other matter, are delivered to destinations around the world. This can be used to deposit cheques and to send orders to the bank to pay money to third parties. Banks also normally use mail to deliver periodic account statements to customers.
Telephone banking is a service provided by a financial institution which allows its customers to perform transactions over the telephone. This normally includes bill payments for bills from major billers (e.g. for electricity).
Online banking is a term used for performing transactions, payments etc. over the Internet through a bank, credit union or building society's secure website.
Mobile banking is a method of using one's mobile phone to conduct simple banking transactions by remotely linking into a banking network.
Video banking is a term used for performing banking transactions or professional banking consultations via a remote video and audio connection. Video banking can be performed via purpose built banking transaction machines (similar to an Automated teller machine), or via a videoconference enabled bank branch.

MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to make things for use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such finished goods may be used for manufacturing other, more complex products, such as household appliances or automobiles, or sold to wholesalers, who in turn sell them to retailers, who then sell them to end users - the "consumers".

Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems. In a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more frequently directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In free market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation.

Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for the production and integration of a product's components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead.

The manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in the United States include General Motors Corporation, Ford Motor Company, Chrysler, Boeing, Gates Corporation and Pfizer. Examples in Europe include Airbus, Daimler, BMW, Fiat, and Michelin Tyre.

History and development
In its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. Training was by apprenticeship. In much of the pre-industrial world the guild system protected the privileges and trade secrets of urban artisans.
Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, where household-based manufacturing served as a supplemental subsistence strategy to agriculture (and continues to do so in places). Entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system.
Toil manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm.

Economics of manufacturing
According to some economists, manufacturing is a wealth-producing sector of an economy, whereas a service sector tends to be wealth-consuming. [1][2] Emerging technologies have provided some new growth in advanced manufacturing employment opportunities in the Manufacturing Belt in the United States. Manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense.

On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs. The clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks. Developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. In the U.S, manufacturers are subject to regulations by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In Europe, pollution taxes to offset environmental costs are another form of regulation on manufacturing activity. Labor Unions and craft guilds have played a historic role negotiation of worker rights and wages. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world. Tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing.

Manufacturing and investment around the world
Surveys and analyses of trends and issues in manufacturing and investment around the world focus on such things as:

the nature and sources of the considerable variations that occur cross-nationally in levels of manufacturing and wider industrial-economic growth;
competitiveness; and
attractiveness to foreign direct investors.
In addition to general overviews, researchers have examined the features and factors affecting particular key aspects of manufacturing development. They have compared production and investment in a range of Western and non-Western countries and presented case studies of growth and performance in important individual industries and market-economic sectors.[3][4] On June 26 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand.

COMMERCE SYSTEM

Microsoft Commerce Server is a Microsoft product for building e-commerce systems. It uses Microsoft .NET technology.

The latest release of the product is Commerce Server 2009. It was launched at the National Retail Federation (NRF) in New York in January 2009, with its official launch at the MIX09 event in Las Vegas in March 2009.

With its inaugural release in 2000, Commerce Server replaced Microsoft Site Server, expanding on the functionality of it and establishing a focus on e-commerce functionality (rather than concerning itself with document management or content metadata). It helps create e-commerce solutions and Web sites with high-performance, familiar tools that simplify setup, management, and administration tasks.

Microsoft Commerce Server 2009 provides a comprehensive solution for many business scenarios, including:

Business-to-consumer (B2C) sales of tangible or digital goods or online service delivery.
Business-to-business (B2B) scenarios, such as e-procurement and trading communities.
B2X scenarios, combining Business to Consumer (B2C) and Business to Business (B2B).
Self service portals using catalogs, profiles, or content targeting for personalized information delivery.

System Components
Commerce Server 2009, which became available on Microsoft's price list on April 1, 2009, introduced multi-channel awareness into the product, a new default site (running in Microsoft's SharePoint product) - including 30 new web parts and controls, and WYSIWYG (what-you-see-is-what-you-get) editing experiences for business people and site designers.

These features were introduced through the new Commerce Foundation - a new abstraction layer which unifies calling patterns of the core systems (see below) and allows for different presentation and business logic to be easily added and represented as 'selling channels'; and SharePoint Commerce Services which includes integration with Microsoft SharePoint - a new default site with 30 new web parts and controls pre-assembled. The default site can be skinned through the new page templating technology, allowing for individual pages to be easily changed by selecting a different template.

The product still retains its core systems of Catalog, Inventory, Orders, Profiles, and Marketing (discussed below).

Orders & Inventory
The Orders & Inventory system is responsible for tracking orders made by customers. The server can link with external systems that track inventory for a business so that inventory information is kept up-to-date and communicate with the appropriate parties when inventory runs low to indicate that it's time for new stock to be ordered. Business users are able to determine what "low" is through a management tool which lets them set inventory thresholds and get reports on product sales according to whatever metrics are desired, using Microsoft SQL Server Analytics.

[edit] Catalog
A company's products are intended to be described in the Catalog system. The products, the categories they belong to ,and relationships with other products are tracked by Commerce Server . A configurable metadata system enable the server to address any kind of merchant scenario.

[edit] Marketing
Managing promotions on a website can become a task unto itself, but the server addresses this web-trend by distilling the index operations associated with online advertising into a finite collection of functions. These let the business user manage ads and set rules that determine the conditions under which specific ads appear.

[edit] Profile
Almost every commercial website today makes an effort to personalize the content for an individual shopper. Its Profile system can do everything from tracking a shopper's product preferences, to tailoring the website presentation for the individual user.

[edit] Other Components
The server comes bundled with Data Warehouse Analytics, which offer sophisticated reporting functionality, dependent on the availability of Microsoft SQL Server Analytics module, in addition to the Commerce Server Staging (CSS) system. The Staging functionality automates the deployment of both dynamic and active content across a network infrastructure and can accommodate a wide variety of network configurations. (Some have remarked that the speed of CSS deployments is perhaps the most note-worthy aspect of this component.)[citation needed]. Commerce Server also comes with BizTalk adaptors, which allow for integration with Microsoft BizTalk for enterprise data manipulation.

[edit] Related Technologies
The product requires the presence of Microsoft SQL Server 2005 or later. Commerce Server also can leverage a number of other Microsoft server products, including BizTalk Server 2006, R2 or 2009 and Microsoft Office SharePoint Server (MOSS).

The product relies on components that are themselves dependent on the presence of the .NET Framework 3.5 and Microsoft's Component Object Model (COM). Recommended deployments are confined to Windows Server 2003 or higher.

[edit] Future Development
The Commerce Server Product Unit has planned to have periodic releases of the product over the next 5 years. The next planned release of Commerce Server is targeted for the 2010 time frame.[citation needed]

[edit] Versions for Windows
2000 - Commerce Server 2000
2002 - Commerce Server 2002
Service Pack 2 (2003)
Service Pack 3 (2004)
2004 - Commerce Server 2002 FP1
Service Pack 4 (2006)
2007 - Commerce Server 2007
Service Pack 1 (2008)
Service Pack 2 (2008)
2009 - Commerce Server 2009